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Co-Responder Models: Presentation to Allentown Public Safety Committee
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Rec
1
Co-Responder
Models
Public
Safety
in
the
21st
Century
Holona
Ochs,
PhD
2
Public
Safety
THE
ISSUES
●
Defunding
of
mental
health
services
●
Widespread
trauma
&
low
access
to
care
●
Police
responses
use
of
force
&
arrests
rather
than
de-escalate
(Puntis
et
al.
2018;
Marcus
&
Stergeopulous
2022)
●
Trust
is
at
historic
low
=
~20%
trust
in
government
(
Pew
2022
)
THE
POLICY
OPTIONS
1.
Crisis
Intervention
Training
(CIT)
2.
Co-Response
Models
3.
Non-Police
[Community]
Response
Models
Animation
3
Evidence
from
62
studies
of
CIT
Use
of
force
●
Training
shows
promise
in
reducing
police-inflicted
injuries
in
some
cases
(Khalsa
2018)
●
Officers
mandated
CIT
reduce
subsequent
force
more
than
officers
who
voluntarily
seek
CIT
(Compton
2017)
○
Self
selection
○
Pre-post
training
gaps
likely
lower
for
volunteers
and
those
in
depts
with
rigorous
use
of
force
policy
●
Studies
find
CIT
increases
subsequent
use
of
force
in
depts
in
which
most
officers
are
CIT
trained
(Yang
2018)
or
no
effect
on
subsequent
force
(Acker
2011;
Compton
2014)
○
Dept
culture
was
not
accounted
for
in
these
studies
but
likely
affects
knowledge
integration
●
Those
with
comorbidities
(multiple
diagnoses/conditions)
are
at
highest
risk
of
being
subject
to
the
use
of
force,
even
after
CIT
(Morabito
2015)
4
Evidence
from
62
studies
of
CIT
Arrests
●
Officers
with
CIT
state
that
they
are
more
likely
to
refer
and
not
arrest
(Watson
&
Wood
2017),
but
that
does
not
pan
out
in
the
data.
When
CIT
v
non-CIT
officers
are
compared,
no
significant
difference
is
detected
(Khalsa
et
al.
2018;
Watson
et
al.
2010;
Acker
2011;
Compton
et
al.
2014,
2017).
●
Again,
difficulties
with
people
presenting
comorbidities
persist,
likely
due
to
stereotypes
about
or
dehumanization
of
drug
users
across
society
(Khalsa
et
al.
2018;
Watson
et
al.
2010).
5
Evidence
from
62
studies
of
CIT
Access
to
Support/Resources/Help
●
CIT
likely
improves
access
to
care,
but
is
less
effective
for
dealing
with
people
with
comorbidities,
and
improved
access
to
care
may
be
a
function
of
self-selection
(officers
who
would
have
done
so
without
training
if
resources
available)
6
Co-Response
Models:
Evidence
from
86
studies
Use
of
Force
●
Quasi-experimental
evidence
suggests
co-responder
models
reduce
use
of
force
(Blais
et
al.
2020)
=
strong
evidence
in
support
of
co-response
●
In
a
survey
of
21
studies,
Shapiro
et
al.
(2015)
find
little
evidence
of
injury
reduction
resulting
from
co-response
models,
but
injuries
tend
to
be
minor
and
self-inflicted
in
the
co-response
data
●
Research
comparing
co-responder
models
with
police-led
response
models
is
absent
from
the
literature
7
Co-Response
Models:
The
Evidence
Arrests
●
All
evidence
indicates
arrest
rates
are
lowered
by
co-response
models
(Shapiro
et
al.
2015;
Kane
et
al.
2018;
Lamanna
et
al.
2018;
Morabito
2018)
●
Blais
et
al.
(2020)
demonstrates
significant
differences
in
the
outcomes
according
to
leadership
structure
○
Police-led
responses:
arrest
or
transport
to
services
=
default
○
Co-responder
models
offer
a
wider
range
of
options
8
Co-Response
Models:
The
Evidence
Access
to
Care
●
Co-responder
models
result
in
increased
access
to
care
compared
to
police-led
models
(Kisely
et
al.
2010;
Semple
2020;
Hupert
&
Griffiths
2015;
Helfgott
et
al.
2016;
Blais
et
al.
2020)
●
Co-responder
models
are
more
efficient
in
terms
of
wait
time
and
resolution
time
(time
on
call)
than
police-led
responses
(Lamanna
2015,
2018;
Semple
2020;
Kisely
2010)
●
Over
time,
involuntary
holds
decrease
as
people
have
consistent
access
to
care
they
choose
through
co-response
approaches
(Hupert
&
Griffiths
2015;
Keown
et
al.
2016;
Morabito
2018;
Blais
et
al.
2020;
Lamanna
et
al.
2015;
Semple
2020;
McKenna
et
al.
2015;
Puntis
et
al.
2018)
●
Effect
on
hospitalizations
compared
to
police-led
models
remains
unclear
because
baseline
need
is
unknown
(Fahim
2015;
Semple
et
al.
2020;
Puntis
et
al.
2015).
9
Variation
in
the
types
of
co-response
models
●
Ride-along
○
Marked
or
unmarked
●
Ride-along
with
control
room
support
○
Mostly
rely
on
control
room
support
○
Mobile
units
for
extreme
cases
■
Marked
or
unmarked
■
Or
ambulance
with
unmarked
co-responders
●
Telephone
triage
○
Tiered
or
telephone
only
NOTE:
Currently,
there
is
not
enough
evidence
to
compare
program
outcomes
by
each
of
these
variable.
A
survey
of
citizen
needs
and
expectations
would
be
useful.
10
Non-Police
Responses
to
Mental
Health
Crises
1.
Crisis
Response
Home
Treatment
(CRHT)
2.
Community-Led
Mobile
Crisis
Units
Available
Evidence
●
Limited
data,
mostly
observational
studies
●
Mobile
intervention
response
times
are
within
45
minutes
and
continue
to
improve
over
time
(only
one
study
available
=
[CT]
Vanderploeg
2016)
●
Indication
that
over-reliance
on
police
improved
through
community
response
(Enos
2020;
Consulting
2020;
Faddy
et
al.
2017),
allowing
police
to
focus
on
violent
crime
●
People
report
experiencing
police-led
responses
(CIT
&
non-CIT)
as
traumatizing,
arbitrary,
negative,
find
few
resources
offered
in
interactions
with
police,
and
prefer
family,
friends,
and
mental
health
professionals
respond
to
mental
health
crises
(Boscarato
2014;
Lamanna
2018;
Brennan
2016;
Puntis
2018)
NOTE:
Research
funded
by
LU
&
LVJI
also
indicates
that
police
officers
also
feel
unprepared
to
deal
with
the
challenges
of
addressing
community
mental
health.
11
Conclusions
&
Recommendations
●
Strong
evidence
that
co-responder
models
reduce
the
use
of
force,
reduce
arrests,
and
improve
access
to
care
●
Evidence
indicates
that
co-response
models
reduce
wait
times
and
time
on
calls
●
Given
reduced
rates
of
violence,
efficiency
gains,
and
improvements
in
access
to
care,
likely
to
enhance
trust
●
Co-response
models
show
the
greatest
gains
for
low-income
communities
of
color,
while
making
everyone
else
safer
too
(Lopez
2016;
Scott
2000;
Compton
et
al.
2017)
●
Research
indicates
that
people
value
co-response
models
(Deane
1999;
Abbott
2011;
Dyer
2015;
Fahim
et
al.
2016;
Hales
2003;
Kirst
et
al.
2016;
Kisely
2010;
Lee
2015;
McKenna
2015)
and
show
that
they
can
be
improved
through
consistent
follow-up
with
clients
and
24
hour
response
capacity
(Kisely
2010;
Lee
2015)
12
Opportunities
MARCON
INSTITUTE
●
“to
be
truly
visionary
we
have
to
root
our
imagination
in
our
concrete
reality
while
simultaneously
imagining
possibilities
beyond
that
reality.”
-bell
hooks
●
Fellows
&
their
projects:
https://marcon.lehigh.edu/marcon-institute/marcon-mountain-hawks
●
Future
collaborations
○
Diverse
Future
Leaders
Program
○
Restorative
JustUs
Lab
■
Mediation
training
■
Peer
mediation
program
■
Public
safety
data
archives
(digitized)
■
Family,
peer,
community,
and
evictions
mediations
Co-Responder
Models
Public
Safety
in
the
21st
Century
Holona
Ochs,
PhD
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Holona Ochs
